CHEM 528

CHEM 528/678
INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR AND RADIOCHEMISTRY
Tentative Course Topical Outline

Text: "RADIOCHEMISTRY AND NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY", 2nd ed., Choppin, Rydberg and Liljenzin

Chapter 1 -- Origin of Nuclear Science
1.1. Radioactive elements
1.2. Radioactive decay
1.3. Discovery of isotopes
1.4. Atomic models

Chapter 2 -- Nuclei, Isotopes and Isotope Separation
2.1. Species of atomic nuclei
2.2. Atomic masses and atomic weights
2.3. Determination of isotopic masses and abundances
    2.3.1. The mass spectrometer
    2.3.2. Applications
2.4. Isotopic ratios in nature
2.5. Physicochemical differences for isotopes
2.6. Isotope effects in chemical equilibrium
    2.6.2. Kinetic energy and temperature
    2.6.4. The isotopic ratio
    2.6.5. Paleotemperatures and other applications
2.7. Isotope effects in chemical kinetics
2.8. Isotope separation processes
    2.8.1. Multistage processes
    2.8.2. Chemical exchange
    2.8.3. Electrolysis
    2.8.4. Gaseous diffusion
    2.8.5. Electromagnetic isotope separation
    2.8.6. Gas centrifugation
    2.8.7. Other methods of isotope separation
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9

Chapter 3 -- Nuclear Mass and Stability
3.1. Patterns of nuclear stability
3.2. Neutron to proton ratio
3.3. Mass defect
3.4. Binding energy
3.5. Nuclear radius
3.6. Semiempirical mass equation
3.7. Valley of b-stability
3.8. The missing elements: ⁴³Tc and ⁶¹Pm
3.8.1. Promethium
3.8.2. Technetium
3.9. Other modes of instability
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7

Chapter 4 -- Unstable Nuclei
4.1. Radioactive decay
4.2. Conservation laws
4.3. Alpha decay
    4.3.1. Detection
    4.3.2. Decay energy
4.4. Beta decay
    4.4.1. Detection
    4.4.2. The b-decay process
    4.4.3. The neutrino
    4.4.5. b^--decay
    4.4.6. Positron decay
    4.4.7. Electron capture
    4.4.8. Daughter recoil
4.5. Gamma emission and internal conversion
4.6. Spontaneous fission
4.7. Rare modes of decay
4.8. Decay schemes and isotope charts
4.9. Secondary processes in the atom
4.10. Closed decay energy cycles
4.11 Kinetics of simple radioactive decay
4.12. Mixed decay
4.13. Radioactive decay units
4.14. Branching decay
4.15. Successive radioactive decay
4.16. Radioisotope generators
4.17. Decay energy and half-life
4.18. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14

Chapter 5 -- Radionuclides in Nature
5.1. Cosmogenic radionuclides
    5.1.1. Survey
    5.1.2. Tritium
    5.1.3. 14-Carbon
5.2. Primordial radionuclides
5.2.1. Very long-lived nuclides lighter than lead
5.2.2. Elements in the natural radioactive decay series
5.3. Transuranic elements in nature and the Np decay series
5.4. Thorium
    5.4.1. Isotopes
    5.4.2. Occurrence and production
    5.4.3. Uses
5.5. Uranium
    5.5.1. Isotopes
    5.5.2. Occurrence, resources and production capacity
    5.5.3. Production techniques
    5.5.4. Production wastes
5.6. Radium and radon in the environment
5.7. Disequilibrium
5.8. Age determination from radioactive decay
    5.8.1. Dating by ¹⁴C method
    5.8.2. Dating by K-Ar method
    5.8.3. Dating by Rb-Sr method
    5.8.4. Dating based on ²³⁸U decay
5.9. Natural radioactivity of the oceans
5.10. Anthropogenic radioactivity in nature
    5.10.1. Nuclear weapons
    5.10.2. Nuclear power plant accidents
    5.10.3. Releases from nuclear plants
    5.10.4. Other anthropogenic additions
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10

Chapter 6 -- Absorption of Nuclear Radiation
6.1. Survey of absorption processes
6.2. Absorption curves
6.3. Absorption of protons and heavier ions
6.4. Absorption of electrons
    6.4.1. Ionization
    6.4.2. Bremsstrahlung
    6.4.3. Cerenkov radiation
    6.4.4. Positron annihilation
    6.4.5. Absorption curves and scattering of b-particles
6.5. Absorption of g-radiation
    6.5.1. Attenuation coefficient
    6.5.2. Partial absorption processes
6.6 Absorption of neutrons
6.7 Radiation shielding
6.8 Analytical applications of radiation absorption
    6.8.1. SIMS (Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry)
    6.8.2. PIXE (Proton or Particle Induced X-ray Emission)
    6.8.3. ESCA (Electron Spectrometry for Chemical Analysis)
    6.8.4. XFS (X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry)
    6.8.5. Mossbauer effect
6.9. Technical applications of radiation sources
    6.9.1. Radionuclide gauges
    6.9.2. Radiography
    6.9.3. Radionuclide power generators
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9

Chapter 7 -- Radiation Effects on Matter
7.1. Energy transfer
    7.1.1. Charged particles
    7.1.2. Uncharged radiation
7.2. Radiation tracks
7.3. Radiation dose and radiation yield
7.6. Water
7.7. Aqueous solutions
7.9. Experimental methods
7.10. Dose measurements
7.11. Large-scale non-biological applications
    7.11.1. Radiation sources
    7.11.2. Process criteria
    7.11.3. Radiation induced synthesis
    7.11.4. Industrial radiation processing
    7.12. Technical uses of small dose-rates
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

Chapter 8 -- Detection and Measurement Techniques
8.1. Track measurements
    8.1.1. Cloud and bubble chambers
    8.1.2. Solid state nuclear track detectors
8.2. General properties of detectors
    8.2.1. Pulse generation
    8.2.2. Basic counting systems
    8.2.3. Pulse shape and dead time
8.3. Gas counters
    8.3.1. Ion chambers
    8.3.2. Proportional counters
    8.3.3. Geiger-Muller counters
8.4. Semiconductor detectors
    8.4.1. Surface barrier detectors
    8.4.2. Lithium-drifted detectors
    8.4.3. Intrinsic detectors
8.5. Scintillation detectors
    8.5.1. Gas scintillator detectors
    8.5.2. Liquid scintillator detectors
    8.5.3. Solid scintillator detectors
8.6 Cerenkov detectors
8.7 Electronics for pulse counting
    8.7.1. Preamplifiers
    8.7.2. Amplifiers
    8.7.3. Single channel analyzers
    8.7.4. Counters and rate meters
    8.7.5. Multichannel analyzers
    8.7.6. g-spectrometry
8.8. Special counting systems
8.9. Absolute disintegration rates
8.10. Sample preparation
8.11. Statistics of counting and associated error
Problems: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11

Chapter 9 -- Uses of Radioactive Tracers
9.1. Basic assumptions for tracer use
9.2. Chemistry of trace concentrations
    9.2.1. Adsorption
    9.2.2. Radiocolloids
    9.2.3. Equilibrium reactions
    9.2.4. Precipitation and crystallization
    9.2.5. Electrochemical properties
    9.2.6. Tracer separation methods
9.3. Analytical applications
    9.3.1. Radiometric analysis
    9.3.2. Isotope dilution analysis
    9.3.3. Activation analysis
    9.3.4. Substoichiometric analysis
9.5. Applications to life sciences
    9.5.1. Biological affinity
    9.5.2. Transmission computer tomography (TCT)
    9.5.3. Emission computer tomography (ECT) and diagnosis
    9.5.4. Radiation therapy with internal radionuclides
9.6. Industrial uses of radiotracers
    9.6.1. Mixing
    9.6.2. Liquid volumes and flows
    9.6.3. Wear and corrosion
    9.6.4. Chemical processing
9.7 Environmental applications
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 13

Chapter 11 -- Nuclear Structure
11.1. Requirements of a nuclear model
    11.1.1. Some general nuclear properties
    11.1.2. Quantized energy levels
    11.1.3. The nuclear potential well
11.2. Rotational energy and angular momentum
    11.2.1. Rotational (mechanical) energy
    11.2.2. Angular momentum
    11.2.3. Coupling of spin and orbital angular moments
    11.2.4. Magnetic moments
    11.2.5. Precession
11.3. The single-particle shell model
    11.3.1. Quantum number rules
    11.3.2. Nuclei without nucleon spin-orbit coupling
    11.3.3. Nuclear level scheme with nucleon spin-orbit coupling
    11.3.4. The nuclear spin
Problems: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

Chapter 16 -- The Transuranium Elements
16.1. Early transuranium elements
16.2. Production of transuranic elements
    16.2.1. Neptunium, element 93
    16.2.2. Plutonium, element 94
    16.2.3. Americium and curium, elements 95 and 96
    16.2.4. Berkelium and californium, elements 97 and 98
    16.2.5. Einsteinium and fermium, elements 99 and 100
    16.2.6. Mendelevium, nobelium and lawrencium, elements 101-103
    16.2.7. The transactinide elements, Z 2 104
16.3. Actinide properties
    16.3.1. The actinide series
    16.3.2. Actinide oxidation states
    16.3.3. Actinide complexes
16.4. Uses of actinides
16.5. Chemistry of transactinide elements
Problems: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10

Chapter 18 -- Radiation Biology and Radiation Protection
18.1. The biological target
18.2. Radiation effects on the molecular level
    18.2.1 Radiation physics
    18.2.2 Radiation chemistry
    18.2.3 Radiation weighing factors
18.6. Epidemiological observations of effects at large radiation doses
    18.6.1. Radiation sickness after accidental exposure
    18.6.2. Radiation therapy and deterministic studies
    18.6.3. Stochastic cancer induction
    18.6.4. Mental retardation
18.11. Somatic effects of low radiation doses
    18.11.1. Epidemiological results
    18.11.2. Problems in studies of low-level low-LET radiation
18.12. The dose-effect curves
18.13. Regulatory recommendations and protection standards
    18.13.1. Risk of cancer induction by radiation
    18.13.2. Recommended dose limits
    18.13.3. The collective dose
    18.13.4. Committed doses
    18.13.5. Internal radiation and ALI values
    18.13.6. Radiotoxicity and risks
    18.13.7. Classifications, working rules, etc.
18.14. Protective measures for radiochemical laboratory work
    18.14.1. Tracer work with moderate b-g levels
    18.14.2. a-laboratories
    18.14.3. High-level b-g emitters
18.15. Control of radiation protection measures
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Chapter 19 -- Principles of Nuclear Power
19.1. The nuclear reactor
19.2. Energy release in fission
19.3. Fission probability
19.4. The fission factor
19.5. Neutron moderation
19.10. The Oklo phenomenon
19.13. Thermal power reactors
19.13.1. The pressurized water reactor
19.13.2. The boiling water reactor
19.16. Radioactive reactor waste
19.17. Nuclear explosives
Problems: 1, 2, 3

Chapter 21 -- The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
21.1. Production of fuel elements
21.2. Power generation
21.3. Composition and properties of spent fuel elements
    21.3.1. Fission products
    21.3.2. Actinides
    21.3.3. Decay heat and physical properties
21.4. Management of spent fuel
    21.4.1. Transport of spent reactor fuel
    21.4.2. Interim storage facilities
21.10. Tank storage of high level liquid wastes
21.11. Options for final treatment of high level waste
    21.11.1. Dispersion into sea and air
    21.11.2. Partitioning
    21.11.3. Disposal into space
    21.11.4. Remote deposition
    21.11.5. Transmutation
21.12. Solidification of high level liquid wastes
21.13. Deposition in geologic formations
    21.13.1. Properties of geologic formations
    21.13.2. Waste conditioning before final storage
    21.13.3. Repository projects
Problems: To be assigned

Chapter 22 -- Behavior of Radionuclides in the Environment
22.1. Radioactive releases and possible effects
22.2. Radionuclides of environmental concern
22.3. Releases from the Chernobyl accident
22.4. The injection of TRU in the environment
22.5. Present levels of TRU in the ecosphere
22.6. Actinide chemistry in the ecosphere
    22.6.1. Redox properties
    22.6.2. Hydrolysis
    22.6.3. Solubilities
    22.6.4. Actinide species in solution
22.8. Natural analogues
Problems: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8

Appendix A -- Solvent Extraction Separations
A. l. Single stage batch extractions
A.2. Multiple stage continuous processes
A.3. High loadings
A.4. Solvent extraction equipment
Problems: A.1, A.2

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